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English Link/ resources online 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 English Grammar English:Nouns
Example Cleanliness
is next to Godliness. The word "noun" derives from the Latin nomen meaning "name", and a traditional definition of nouns is that they are all and only those expressions that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, or idea. They serve as the subject or object of a verb, and the object of a preposition. There are different groups of nouns: Common nouns
— "chair" Each of these different groups of nouns has different properties, each making them different in how we use them. So nouns are names of objects, places, people and things. They're used with adjectives to describe something, and with verbs to show an action.
"The nameless HE, whose nod is Nature's birth."--Young, Night iv. "I was wont to load my she with knacks."--Shak. Winter's Tale. "Or any he, the proudest of thy sort."--Shak. "I am the happiest she in Kent."--Steele. "The shes of Italy."--Shak. "The hes in birds."--Bacon. "We should soon have as many hes and shes as the French."--Cobbet's E. Gram., Para. 42. "If, for instance, we call a nation a she, or the sun a he."--Ib., Para. 198. "When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the writer."--Ib., Para. 196. "Let those two questionary petitioners try to do this with their whos and their whiches."--SPECT: Ash's Gr., p. 131. "Such mortal drugs I have; but Mantua's law Is death to any he that utters them."--Shak.
"A may-be of mercy is sufficient."--Bridge. "Which cuts are reckoned among the fractures."--Wiseman. "The officer erred in granting a permit." "Feel darts and charms, attracts and flames."--Hudibras. "You may know by the falling off of the come, or sprout."--Mortimer. "And thou hast talk'd of sallies and retires."--Shak. "For all that else did come, were sure to fail; Yet would he further none, but for avail."--Spenser.
"For the crying of the poor and the sighing of the needy, I will arise."--Bible. "Surely the churning of milk bringeth forth butter, and the wringing of the nose bringeth forth blood; so the forcing of wrath bringeth forth strife."--Prov., xxx, 33. "Reading, writing, and ciphering, are indispensable to civilized man." "Hence was invented the distinction between doing and permitting."--Calvin's Inst., p. 131. "Knowledge of the past comes next."--Hermes, p. 113. "I am my beloved's, and his desire is toward me."--Sol. Song, vii, 10. "Here's--a simple coming-in for one man."--Shak. "What are thy rents? What are thy comings-in? O Ceremony, show me but thy worth."--Id.
"If a point or now were extended, each of them would contain within itself infinite other points or nows."--Hermes, p. 101. "The why is plain as way to parish church."--Shak. "'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter."--Addison. "The dread of a hereafter."--Fuller. "The murmur of the deep amen."--Sir W. Scott. "For their whereabouts lieth in a mystery."--Book of Thoughts, p. 14. Better. "Bid them farewell, Cordelia, though unkind; Thou losest here, a better where to find."--Shak.
"Your if is the only peacemaker; much virtue is in if."--Shak. "So his Lordship decreed with a grave solemn tone, Decisive and clear, without one if or but-- That whenever the Nose put his spectacles on, By daylight or candlelight--Eyes should be shut."--Cowper.
"I. e., her longing is further than beyond; beyond any thing that desire can be said to be beyond."--Singer's Notes. "You whirled them to the back of beyont to look at the auld Roman camp."-- Antiquary, i. 37.
"Will cuts him short with a 'What then?'"--Sermon "With hark and whoop, and wild halloo."--Scott. "And made a pish at chance and sufferance."--Shak. "A single look more marks th' internal wo, Than all the windings of the lengthen'd oh."--Lloyd.
There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter: The masculine
gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind; as,
man, father, king. Masculine
nouns make regular feminines, when their termination is changed to ess:
as, hunter, huntress; prince, princess; lion, lioness. In a few
instances the feminine is formed as in Latin, by changing or to rix; but
some of these have also the regular form, which ought to be preferred:
as, adjutor, adjutrix; administrator, administratrix; arbitrator, arbitratrix;
coadjutor, coadjutrix; competitor, competitress, or competitrix; creditor,
The following
are irregular words, in which the distinction of sex is chiefly made by
the termination: amoroso, amorosa: archduke, archduchess; chamberlain,
chambermaid; duke, duchess; gaffer, gammer; goodman, goody, or goodwife;
hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margravine; marquis,
marchioness; palsgrave, palsgravine; sakeret, sakerhawk; sewer, sewster;
sultan, sultana; tzar, tzarina; tyrant, tyranness; widower, widow. There are two numbers; the singular and the plural. The singular number is that which denotes but one; as, "The boy learns." The plural number is that which denotes more than one; as, "The boys learn." [edit] boy boys
/b??z/ Where a noun ends in a sibilant sound - one of [s], [?], [?], [z], [?], and [?] — the plural is formed by adding [?z] (also pronounced [?z]), which is spelled -es if the word does not already end with -e: glass glasses
/'glæs?z/ Morphophonetically, these rules are sufficient to describe most English plurals. However, there are several complications introduced in spelling. The -oes rule: most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also form their plurals by adding -es (pronounced [z]): hero heroes
The -ies rule: nouns ending in a y preceded by a consonant drop the y and add -ies (pronounced [iz]): cherry cherries
Note, however, that proper nouns (particularly those for people or places) ending in a y preceded by a consonant form their plurals regularly: Harry Harrys
(as in There are three Harrys in our office) This does not apply to words that are merely capitalised common nouns: P&O Ferries (from ferry) A few common nouns ending in a y preceded by a consonant form their plurals regularly: henry henrys
Finally, words ending in ey form their plurals regularly, in order to avoid the unpleasant-appearing vowel sequence eie: monkey monkeys
canto cantos
Many nouns ending in a voiceless fricative mutate that sound to a voiced fricative before adding the plural ending. In the case of [f] changing to [v] the mutation is indicated in the orthography as well: calf calves
/kævz/ Some retain the voiceless consonant: proof proofs
Some can do either: dwarf1 dwarfs/dwarves
Note 1: Dwarf is an interesting case: the common form of the plural was dwarfs — as, for example, in w:Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs — until w:J. R. R. Tolkien popularised dwarves; he intended the changed spelling to differentiate the "dwarf" race in his novels from the cuter and simpler beings common in fairy tales, but it has since spread. Multiple dwarf stars, or non-mythological short human beings, however, are dwarfs. Note 2: For staff in the sense of "a body of employees", the plural is always staffs; otherwise both staffs and staves are acceptable, except in compounds; such as flagstaffs. The stave of a barrel or cask is a back-formation from staves, which is its plural. (See the Plural to singular by back-formation section below.)
ox oxen (also
oxes in metaphorical sense) The word box, referring to a computer, is semi-humorously pluralized boxen in the Leet dialect. Multiple Vax computers, likewise, are sometimes called Vaxen, but multiple Unix systems are usually Unices (see Irregular plurals of foreign origin below). Related is the use amongst Petrolheads of the term "Loti" to refer to examples of Lotus Cars in the plural. The plural is sometimes formed by simply changing the vowel sound of the singular, in a process called umlaut (these are sometimes called mutated plurals): foot feet
Some nouns have singular and plural alike, although they are sometimes seen as regular plurals. aircraft
Correctly formed Latin plurals are the most acceptable, and indeed are often required, in academic and scientific contexts. In common usage, plurals with -s are sometimes preferred. Final a becomes
ae (also æ) — or just adds s: Final ex
or ix becomes ices (pronounced [??si?z] or [??siz]) — or just adds
es: Some people treat process as if it belonged to this class, pronouncing processes /'p??s??si?z/ instead of standard /'p??s?s?z/ Final is
becomes es (pronounced [?i?z]: Note that axes the plural of axis is pronounced differently from axes (/'æks?z/) the plural of axe. Final ies
remains unchanged: Final on
becomes a: Final um
becomes a – or just adds s Final us
becomes i (second declension) or era or ora (third declension) —
or just adds es (especially in fourth declension, where it would otherwise
be the same as the singular): Note: See article on the w:plural of virus. Final as
in one case of a noun of Greek origin changes to antes: Final ma
in nouns of Greek origin add ta: Though some take s more commonly: schema schemata/schemas
Final us
in nouns of Greek origin "properly" add es. These words are
also heard with the Latin -i instead, which is sometimes considered "over-correct",
but this is so common as to be acceptable in most circumstances, even
technical ones. The Greek plural for words ending in -pus (gr. poûs) meaning "foot", such as octopus and platypus, is -podes, but this plural is rare for octopus and has never been accepted for platypus. Some nouns
of French origin add x Foreign terms may use native plural forms, especially when the words are unfamiliar to an anglophone audience, or when writing for an audience familiar with the language. In either case, the unfamiliar conventionally-formed English plural may sound awkward, or be confusing. Examples
of nouns from Slavic languages. Nouns of
Hebrew language origin add im or ot (generally m/f) — or just s Some nouns
of Japanese origin have no plural and do not change: However, other nouns such as kimonos, futons and tsunamis are more often seen with a regular English plural. In New Zealand English, nouns of Ma-ori origin can either take an s or have no separate plural form. Words more connected to Ma-ori culture and used in that context tend to retain the same form, while names of flora and fauna may or may not take an s, depending on context. The addition or omission of the s on nouns of Ma-ori origin varies throughout the sociolinguistic spectrum and is politically charged: among Pakeha (New Zealanders of predominantly European descent), older speakers are more likely to add an s, while younger speakers are more likely to omit. Omission is regarded by many as an example of political correctness. waka waka
Note: kiwi, when referring to the bird, may or may not take an s, but when used as an informal term for a New Zealander, always takes an s. Ma-ori, when referring to a person of that ethnicity, seldom takes an s in Standard New Zealand English, where it is seen as culturally insensitive, however a number of speakers, particularly older Pakeha, still add the s. Many speakers avoid the use of Ma-ori as a noun, and instead use it only as an adjective. Nouns from languages that have donated few words to English, and that are spoken by relatively few English-speakers, generally form plurals as if they were native English words: canoe canoes
In Canada and Alaska, some words borrowed from Inuktitut retain traditional plurals (see also #Plurals of names of peoples, below): Inuk Inuit
Proper singular
Proper plural/ Note: A single piece of data is often referred to as a data point. A military phalanx is pluralized phalanxes. The phalanges as body parts (fingers and toes) are rarely referred to in the singular. A related phenomenon is the confusion of a foreign plural for its singular form: phenomenon
phenomena Magazine is a plural noun, from Arabic via French, but is always regarded as singular in English; the plural is magazines. The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s or es to the singular: as, book, books; box, boxes; sofa, sofas; hero, heroes. When the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of s, the plural is generally formed by adding s only, and the number of syllables is not increased: as, pen, pens; grape, grapes. But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the primitive word, the regular plural adds s to final e, and es to other terminations, and forms a separate syllable: as, page, pages; fox, foxes. Plurals in
meaning and form: analects, annals, archives, ashes, assets, billiards,
bowels, breeches, calends, cates, chops, clothes, compasses, crants, Plurals by
formation, derived chiefly from adjectives: acoustics, aeronautics, analytics,
bitters, catoptrics, commons, conics, credentials, delicates, dioptrics,
economics, ethics, extraordinaries, filings, fives, freshes, Plurals by
composition: backstairs, cocklestairs, firearms, headquarters, hotcockles,
spatterdashes, self-affairs. To these may be added the Latin words, Of nouns
in a, saliva, spittle, and scoria, dross, have no occasion for the plural;
lamina, a thin plate, makes laminae; macula, a spot, maculae; minutia,
a little thing, minutiae; nebula, a mist, nebulae; siliqua, a pod, siliqiuae.
Dogma makes dogmas or dogmata; exanthema, exanthemas or exanthemata; miasm
or miasma, miasms or miasmata; stigma, stigmas or stigmata. Of nouns
in us, a few have no plural; as, asparagus, calamus, mucus. Some have
only the Latin plural, which usually changes us to i; as, alumnus, alumni;
Of nouns
in is, some are regular; as, trellis, trellises: so, annolis, butteris,
caddis, dervis, iris, marquis, metropolis, portcullis, proboscis. Some
seem to have no need of the plural; as, ambergris, aqua-fortis, arthritis,
brewis, Of nouns
in x, there are few, if any, which ought not to form the plural regularly,
when used as English words; though the Latins changed x to ces, and Of nouns
in on, derived from Greek, the greater part always form the plural regularly;
as, etymons, gnomons, ichneumons, myrmidons, phlegmons, trigons,
Exercise 1 Most plurals ? noum + -s. e.g.: book ? books cat ____________________________________ chair ____________________________________ girl ____________________________________
student ____________________________________ Exercise 2 Nouns ending in -s,-ss,-sh,-ch,-x,-z ? noum + -es, which is spelled -es if the word does not already end with -e. e.g.: glass ? glasses, phase ? phases dish ____________________________________ witch ____________________________________ Exercise 3 Nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel ? noum + -s. e.g.: boy ? boys day ____________________________________ monkey ____________________________________ key ____________________________________ Exercise 4 Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant ? -y + -ies e.g.: cherry ? cherries lady ____________________________________ Exercise 5 Nouns ending in –o ? noun + -es e.g.: hero ? heroes potato ____________________________________ volcano ____________________________________ Exeptions:
e.g.: kilo ? kilos b) All nouns ending in –o preceded by a vowel. ? noun + -s e.g.: radio ? radios c) Some nouns ending in –o have two plural forms. ? noun + -s or -es e.g.: volcano ? volcanos or volcanoes buffalo ____________________________________ mango ____________________________________ Exercise 6 A few nouns ending in -f or -fe ? -ves e.g.: calf ? calves elf ____________________________________ half ____________________________________ knife ____________________________________ leaf ____________________________________ life ____________________________________ loaf ____________________________________ sheaf ____________________________________ shelf ____________________________________ thief ____________________________________ wife ____________________________________ wolf ____________________________________ Exercise 7 Many words ending in -f or -fe ? noun + -s e.g.: cliff ? cliffs proof ____________________________________
e.g.: staff ? staffs or staves Exercise 8 Regular Plurals of Nouns - Gap-fill exercise (External link)
There are three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.
The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to who or what before it; as, "The boy runs."--Who runs? "The boy." Boy is therefore here in the nominative case.
The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only: as, singular, boy's; plural, boys';--sounded alike, but written differently.
The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which answers to whom or what after it; as, "I know the boy."--I know whom? "The boy." Boy is therefore here in the objective case. The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike in form, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sentence, or by their simple dependence according to the sense.
Sing. Nom.
friend, Plur. Nom. friends, Sing. Nom.
man, Plur. Nom. men, Sing. Nom.
fox, Plur. Nom. foxes, Sing. Nom.
fly, Plur. Nom. flies,
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